2018年12月1日托?？荚囬喿x預(yù)測(cè)機(jī)經(jīng)（版本合集?。?/h1>

• 時(shí)間：2021-08-04

• 來(lái)源：留學(xué)監(jiān)理網(wǎng)

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一.天文學(xué)

【標(biāo)題】Pluto’s Status關(guān)于冥王星是不是行星的討論

冥王星的體積很小，有些小行星都比它大。冥王星在剛被發(fā)現(xiàn)時(shí)被認(rèn)為體積很大，一方面跟reflectivity有關(guān)，一方面跟它的質(zhì)量(mass)有關(guān)。有些人提出冥王星一直保持圍繞太陽(yáng)運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)的軌道，這一特征可使其被歸為太陽(yáng)系的第十大行星。關(guān)于冥王星的爭(zhēng)議在于，有人認(rèn)為它已經(jīng)長(zhǎng)時(shí)間被認(rèn)為是行星就應(yīng)繼續(xù)這樣，也有人認(rèn)為判斷一個(gè)天體是不是行星，應(yīng)該看它的重量是否足夠達(dá)到受gravity的影響，從而形成一個(gè)球體。所以最終冥王星的歸宿是一個(gè)新的天文學(xué)分類——矮行星(dwarf planet，介于行星planet和小行星asteroid之間)。

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二.歷史學(xué)

【標(biāo)題】High Middle Ages中世紀(jì)鼎盛時(shí)期

西羅馬帝國(guó)滅亡之后，歐洲經(jīng)濟(jì)經(jīng)歷了數(shù)百年的停滯(stagnation)，直到公元1000年才迎來(lái)復(fù)蘇，此后持續(xù)了300多年的繁榮，這個(gè)時(shí)期(1000-1300)被稱為中世紀(jì)的鼎盛期(the High Middle Ages)。鼎盛期的出現(xiàn)原因有三。一是心理原因(psychological reason)。當(dāng)時(shí)廣為流傳的預(yù)言(the widespread prophecies)說(shuō)世界將在公元1000年毀滅，但實(shí)際并未發(fā)生。于是人們重拾對(duì)生活的信心。二是政治原因。當(dāng)時(shí)歐洲大范圍的外族入侵停止了(foreign incursions had ceased)。三是農(nóng)業(yè)技術(shù)的提高。三田輪耕系統(tǒng)(a three-field system)取代了先前的二田輪耕系統(tǒng)。土地每三年休耕一次(uncultivated every third year)，而不是每?jī)赡昃托莞淮危@導(dǎo)致農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)大大增加。此外，農(nóng)業(yè)工具犁也從木制改為鐵制，并且耕畜(draft animal)從牛改為馬，生產(chǎn)效率大大提高。

中世紀(jì)鼎盛期的經(jīng)濟(jì)繁榮帶來(lái)的一個(gè)主要結(jié)果是人口增長(zhǎng)。人口的增長(zhǎng)反過(guò)來(lái)(in turn)又產(chǎn)生兩個(gè)進(jìn)一步的影響，即人們需要消費(fèi)更多的商品，并且需要開(kāi)墾更多的土地(more land reclamation)。人們圍海圍湖造田，并且在森林覆蓋的地區(qū)，開(kāi)辟出新的農(nóng)場(chǎng)和村莊。各個(gè)地區(qū)之間的陸地貿(mào)易和河流貿(mào)易都大幅提高，貿(mào)易的持續(xù)發(fā)展使人們相信經(jīng)濟(jì)的持久繁榮，這種信念向外呈現(xiàn)在追求事物的永恒(the permanency of things)，如當(dāng)時(shí)城堡、教堂和私人住宅(private dwellings)的建立越來(lái)越采用石頭材料，希望其永遠(yuǎn)存在。

三.貓頭鷹的眼睛

對(duì)貓頭鷹的眼睛與眾不同。貓頭鷹的眼睛有助于他們?cè)谝曈X(jué)上深度的延伸，因?yàn)檠矍蛐螤畈灰粯?。貓頭鷹的脖子可以270度轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)，背后的眼睛mark會(huì)警示捕食者(predator)。涉及到辨別顏色的眼球細(xì)胞，人類有三種細(xì)胞，部分鳥(niǎo)類有四種，而貓頭鷹只有兩種，且其中一種細(xì)胞數(shù)量較多，因此它們對(duì)光很敏感。還提到了某種身體組織(tissue)。

(貓頭鷹話題重復(fù)2018-07-07依靠聽(tīng)覺(jué)捕獵Hunting by Ear)

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Animal Behavior動(dòng)物行為

1 By the early 1900s the field of animal behavior had split into two major branches. One branch, ethology, developed primarily in Europe. To ethologists, what is striking about animal behaviors in that they are fixed and seemingly unchangeable? For example, kittens and puppies play in characteristic but different ways. Present a kitten with a ball of yarn and invariably it draws back its head and bats the yarn with claws extended. Kittens are generally silent as they play, and their tails twitch. Puppies, by contrast, are most likely to pounce flat-footed on a ball of yarn. They bit and bark and their tails wag. Ethologists came to believe that ultimately even the most complex animal behaviors could be broken down into a series of unchangeable stimulus/response reactions. They became convinced that the details of these patterns were as distinctive of a particular group of animals as were anatomical characteristics. For well over half a century, their search for and description of innate patterns of animal behavior continued.

到20世紀(jì)初，動(dòng)物行為學(xué)已經(jīng)分為兩個(gè)主要分支。其中一個(gè)分支，動(dòng)物行為學(xué)，主要是在歐洲發(fā)展起來(lái)的。在動(dòng)物行為學(xué)家看來(lái)，動(dòng)物的行為有什么驚人之處，即它們是固定不變的?例如，小貓和小狗以不同的方式玩耍。給小貓一團(tuán)紗線，它總是縮回頭，伸出爪子拍打紗線。小貓?jiān)谕嫠r(shí)通常是安靜的，它們的尾巴會(huì)抽動(dòng)。相比之下，小狗更有可能在一團(tuán)毛線上平足突襲。它們又咬又叫，尾巴搖來(lái)?yè)u去。動(dòng)物行為學(xué)家開(kāi)始相信，最終，即使是最復(fù)雜的動(dòng)物行為也可以分解為一系列不可改變的刺激/反應(yīng)反應(yīng)。他們開(kāi)始相信，這些圖案的細(xì)節(jié)，就像解剖學(xué)特征一樣，在某一特定動(dòng)物群體中是獨(dú)特的。在超過(guò)半個(gè)世紀(jì)的時(shí)間里，他們繼續(xù)探索和描述動(dòng)物行為的固有模式。

2 Meanwhile, mainly in North America, the study of animal behavior took a different tack, developing into comparative behavior. Of interest to comparative behaviorists was where a particular came from, that is, its evolutionary history, how the nervous system controlled it, and the extent to which it could be modified. In 1894, C. Lloyd Morgan, an early comparative behaviorist, insisted that animal behavior be explained as simply as possible without reference to emotions or motivations since these could not be observed or measured. In Morgan’s research, animals were put in simple situations, presented with an easily described stimulus, and their resultant behavior described.

同時(shí)，主要在北美，動(dòng)物行為的研究采取了不同的方向，發(fā)展為比較行為。比較行為主義者感興趣的是某一特定事物從何而來(lái)，即它的進(jìn)化史，神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)如何控制它，以及它可以被修改的程度。1894年，C. Lloyd Morgan，一位早期的比較行為主義者，堅(jiān)持認(rèn)為動(dòng)物行為的解釋?xiě)?yīng)該盡可能的簡(jiǎn)單，不需要考慮情緒或動(dòng)機(jī)，因?yàn)檫@些是無(wú)法觀察或測(cè)量的。在摩根的研究中，動(dòng)物被置于簡(jiǎn)單的情境中，被置于一個(gè)容易描述的刺激物中，它們由此產(chǎn)生的行為被描述。

3 The extension to animals of behaviorism—the idea that the study of behavior should be restricted to only those elements that can be directly observed—was an important development in comparative behavior. Studies of stimulus/response and the importance of simple rewards to enforce and modify animal behavior were stressed. Not surprisingly, comparative behaviorists worked most comfortably in the laboratory. Comparative behaviorists stressed the idea that animal behavior could be modified, while their ethologist colleagues thought it was innate and unchangeable. Inevitably, the two approaches led to major disagreements.

行為主義在動(dòng)物身上的推廣——行為研究應(yīng)該局限于那些可以直接觀察到的因素——是比較行為學(xué)的一個(gè)重要發(fā)展。研究的刺激/反應(yīng)和簡(jiǎn)單的獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)的重要性，以執(zhí)行和修改動(dòng)物的行為強(qiáng)調(diào)。毫不奇怪，比較行為主義者在實(shí)驗(yàn)室里工作得最舒服。比較行為主義者強(qiáng)調(diào)動(dòng)物行為是可以改變的，而他們的行為學(xué)家同事則認(rèn)為這是天生的、不可改變的。這兩種方法不可避免地導(dǎo)致了重大分歧。

4 To early ethologists, the major driving force in behavior was instinct, behaviors that are inherited and unchangeable. ■ Moths move towards light because they inherit the mechanism to so respond to light. ■Although dogs have more options available to them, they bark at strangers for much the same reasons. ■The comparative behaviorists disagreed: learning and rewards are more important factors than instinct in animal behavior. ■ Geese are not born with the ability to retrieve lost eggs when they roll out the nest, they learn to do so. If their behavior seems sometimes silly to humans because it fails to take new conditions into account, that is because the animal’s ability to learn is limited. There were too many examples of behaviors modified by experience for comparative behaviorists to put their faith in instincts.

對(duì)早期的動(dòng)物行為學(xué)家來(lái)說(shuō)，行為的主要驅(qū)動(dòng)力是本能，即遺傳的、不可改變的行為?！鲲w蛾走向光因?yàn)樗麄兝^承機(jī)制來(lái)應(yīng)對(duì)?！鲭m然狗有更多的選擇,他們?cè)谀吧朔徒?原因是一樣的?！霰容^行為學(xué)家不同意:學(xué)習(xí)和獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)在動(dòng)物行為比天性更重要的因素?！鳄Z不是與生俱來(lái)的能力來(lái)檢索了雞蛋當(dāng)他們推出巢,他們學(xué)會(huì)這么做。如果它們的行為有時(shí)因?yàn)闆](méi)有考慮到新的環(huán)境而在人類看來(lái)顯得愚蠢，那是因?yàn)閯?dòng)物的學(xué)習(xí)能力有限。有太多的行為是由經(jīng)驗(yàn)修正的，以至于比較行為主義者不相信直覺(jué)。

5 The arguments came to a peak in the 1950s and became known as the nature or nurture controversy. Consider how differently an ethologist and a comparative behaviorist would interpret the begging behavior of a hatchling bird. The first time a hatchling bird is approached by its parent, it begs for food. All baby birds of a particular species beg in exactly the same way. Obviously, said the ethologists, they inherited the ability and the tendency to beg. Baby birds did not have to learn the behavior, they were born with it—a clear example of innate, unchanging behavior. Not so, countered the comparative behaviorists. Parent birds teach their young to beg by stuffing food in their open mouths. Later experiments showed that before hatching, birds make and respond to noises of their nest mates and adults. Is it not possible that young birds could learn to beg prenatally?

這種爭(zhēng)論在20世紀(jì)50年代達(dá)到頂峰，被稱為“先天還是后天的爭(zhēng)論”。想一想，一個(gè)行為學(xué)家和一個(gè)比較行為學(xué)家對(duì)一只剛孵出的小鳥(niǎo)的求乞行為的解釋會(huì)有多么不同。當(dāng)父母第一次走近剛孵出的小鳥(niǎo)時(shí)，它就會(huì)乞求食物。所有特定種類的幼鳥(niǎo)都以完全相同的方式求食。很明顯，動(dòng)物學(xué)家說(shuō)，他們遺傳了乞討的能力和傾向。雛鳥(niǎo)不需要學(xué)習(xí)這種行為，它們生來(lái)就有——這是天生不變的行為的明顯例子。比較行為主義者反駁道，事實(shí)并非如此。父母用張開(kāi)的嘴塞食物來(lái)教孩子乞討。后來(lái)的實(shí)驗(yàn)表明，在孵化前，鳥(niǎo)會(huì)對(duì)巢中同伴和成年鳥(niǎo)發(fā)出的聲音做出反應(yīng)。難道雛鳥(niǎo)不可能在出生前學(xué)會(huì)乞討嗎?

6 It was hard for ethologists to accept that innate behaviors could be modified by learning. It was equally difficult for comparative behaviorists to accept that genetic factors could dominate learning experiences. The controversy raged for over a decade. Eventually, however, the distinctions between the two fields narrowed. The current view is that both natural endowments and environmental factors work together to shape behavior.

動(dòng)物行為學(xué)家很難接受先天行為可以通過(guò)學(xué)習(xí)來(lái)改變。比較行為主義者同樣難以接受遺傳因素可以支配學(xué)習(xí)經(jīng)驗(yàn)。這場(chǎng)爭(zhēng)論持續(xù)了十多年。然而，最終，這兩個(gè)領(lǐng)域的區(qū)別縮小了。目前的觀點(diǎn)是，自然稟賦和環(huán)境因素共同影響行為。

2018年12月1日托福預(yù)測(cè)機(jī)經(jīng)

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